Choline in anxiety and depression: the Hordaland Health Study1,2,3
Am J Clin Nutr 90: 1056-1060, 2009.
Ingvar Bjelland, Grethe S Tell, Stein E Vollset, Svetlana
Konstantinova and Per M Ueland
1 From the Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Haukeland
University Hospital, Bergen, Norway (IB); the Department of Public
Health and Primary Health Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
(IB, GST, SEV, and SK); Section for Pharmacology, Institute of
Medicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway (PMU); and the
Laboratory of Clinical Biochemistry, Haukeland University Hospital,
Bergen, Norway (PMU).

2 Supported by the Foundation to Promote Research into Functional
Vitamin B-12 Deficiency.

3 Address correspondence to I Bjelland, Department of Public Health
and Primary Health Care, University of Bergen, Kalfarveien 31, N-5018
Bergen, Norway. E-mail: ingvar.bjell...@helse-bergen.no.

Background: Despite its importance in the central nervous system as a
precursor for acetylcholine and membrane phosphatidylcholine, the role
of choline in mental illness has been little studied.

Objective: We examined the cross-sectional association between plasma
choline concentrations and scores of anxiety and depression symptoms
in a general population sample.

Design: We studied a subsample (n = 5918) of the Hordaland Health
Study, including both sexes and 2 age groups of 46–49 and 70–74 y who
had valid information on plasma choline concentrations and symptoms of
anxiety and depression measured by the Hospital Anxiety and Depression
Scale—the latter 2 as continuous measures and dichotomized at a score
8 for both subscales.

Results: The lowest choline quintile was significantly associated with
high anxiety levels (odds ratio: 1.33; 95% CI: 1.06, 1.69) in the
fully adjusted (age group, sex, time since last meal, educational
level, and smoking habits) logistic regression model. Also, the trend
test in the anxiety model was significant (P = 0.007). In the
equivalent fully adjusted linear regression model, a significant
inverse association was found between choline quintiles and anxiety
levels (standardized regression coefficient = –0.027, P = 0.045). We
found no significant associations in the corresponding analyses of the
relation between plasma choline and depression symptoms.

Conclusion: In this large population–based study, choline
concentrations were negatively associated with anxiety symptoms but
not with depression symptoms.

Am J Clin Nutr 90: 1056-1060, 2009. First published August 5, 2009;
doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.27493
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.27493
Vol. 90, No. 4, 1056-1060, October 2009
ORIGINAL RESEARCH COMMUNICATION
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Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids improve cholinergic
transmission in the aged brain.
Genes Nutr. 2009 Aug 29.
Willis LM, Shukitt-Hale B, Joseph JA.
USDA-ARS, Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging at Tufts
University,
711 Washington Street, Boston, MA, 02111, USA,
lauren.meredith.wil...@gmail.com.

The cholinergic theory of aging states that dysfunction of
cholinergic
neurons arising from the basal forebrain and terminating in the
cortex
and hippocampus may be involved in the cognitive decline that occurs
during aging and Alzheimer's disease.
Despite years of research, pharmacological interventions to treat or
forestall the development of Alzheimer's disease have primarily
focused
on enhancing cholinergic transmission, either through increasing
acetylcholine (ACh) synthesis or inhibition of the
acetylcholinesterase
enzyme responsible for ACh hydrolysis.
However, recent studies have indicated that dietary supplementation
can impact the cholinergic system, particularly during aging.
The purpose of the present review is to examine the relevant research
suggesting that cholinergic functioning may be maintained during
aging
via consuming a diet containing polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs).
The data reviewed herein indicate that, at least in animal studies,
inclusion
of PUFAs in the diet can improve cholinergic transmission in the
brain,
possibly leading to improvements in cognitive functioning.

PMID: 19727886

--------------------

Lecithin consumption increases acetylcholine concentrations in rat
brain and adrenal gland
Science, Vol 202, Issue 4364, 223-225
MJ Hirsch and RJ Wurtman

Consumption of a single meal containing lecithin, the major source of
choline occurring naturally in the diet, increased the concentrations
of choline and acetylcholine in rat brain and adrenal gland. Hence,
the concentration of acetylcholine in the tissues may normally be
under direct, short-term nutritional control.

Science 13 October 1978:
Vol. 202. no. 4364, pp. 223 - 225
DOI: 10.1126/science.694529
Science, Vol 202, Issue 4364, 223-225
Copyright © 1978 by American Association for the Advancement of
Science

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"Lecithin raises choline levels"
"Lecithin may be the method of choice for accelerating acetylcholine
synthesis"

Lecithin consumption raises serum-free-choline levels.
Lancet. 1977 Jul 9;2(8028):68-9.
Wurtman RJ, Hirsch MJ, Growdon JH.

Consumption of choline by rats sequentially increases serum-choline,
brain-choline, and brain-acetylcholine concentrations. In man
consumption of choline increases in levels in the serum and
cerebrospinal fluid; its administration is an effective way of
treating tardive dyskinesia.
We found that oral lecithin is considerably more effective in raising
human serum-choline levels than an equivalent quantity of choline
chloride. 30 minutes after ingestion of choline chloride (2-3 g free
base), serum-choline levels rose by 86% and returned to normal values
within 4 hours; 1 hour after lecithin ingestion, these levels rose by
265% and remained significantly raised for 12 hours.
Lecithin may therefore be the method of choice for
accelerating acetylcholine synthesis by increasing the availability
of choline, its precursor in the blood.

PMID: 69151

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